Aspiration to determine your location ondrier, on the sea or among the stars was one of the very first reasonable human needs. Primitive drawings of primitive habitats gave rise to a complex and multifaceted direction of human activity. Studies of new lands and their description gave impetus to the intellectual development of the whole civilization.
Origin of the term
The Greek words χάρτης - hartis (charter, papyrus,paper) and γράφειν - graphene (writing, scratching) became the basis of the term denoting a vast field of special professional activity at the intersection of various branches of science related to the description of the spatial environment of man. Cartography is also a special area of visual art.
The best examples of manuscript cards from the heritagepast years - masterpieces of graphics of high artistic level. Today, when creating electronic maps, plans, schemes can not do without artists. In the XXI century cartography is an exquisite computer two-dimensional and 3D-graphics, stylish visual design.
Start
The earliest images that have come down to us, similaron maps, not only applied to primitive drawings of the earth's surface, but also to the sky. Petroglyphs (carved on stone) - images of the most striking constellations, found in France and Spain, rock carvings, reminiscent of the village plan, was made over 6000 years BC in the foothills of Turkey. The history of cartography suggests that it appeared before writing and tells about the concentration of all advanced scientific knowledge for the creation of the first cartographic images.
The views of ancient philosophers on the world orderreflected in the first geographical maps, which he drew in the VI century BC. e. scientist Anaximander. The earth appeared on them in a flat circle, surrounded by water.
Knowledge of the world expanded, increasedthe territory of the planet depicted on the maps. The development of cartography is difficult to imagine without the "Geography" of Ptolemy (II century BC). His maps already have a designation of latitude and longitude, three parts of the world are designated: Europe, Asia and Libya (Africa). The most explored areas of Europe and North Africa had a very accurate image, more conditional - Asia. A great place on Ptolemy's maps was occupied by the Unknown Land.
Maps of Ancient China and the East
The first mention of Chinese maps containingexcept for geographical data, information on the economy of different regions, on the proposed goods, refer to the III century BC. e. The foundations of cartography, as an alloy of various scientific knowledge - physical, geographical, historical, economic and political - were laid just then. The maps and topographic plans of the Han dynasties in the first centuries of our time already had symbol systems, rectangular coordinate systems and precise boundaries of lands belonging to the possessions of different rulers.
Achievements of ancient India cartographersare reflected in the illustrations to the epic poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana." In the places where the action of these poems takes place, there are many mythological elements - the legendary cities and fictitious creatures.
On medieval maps of eastern geographersAl-Khwarizmi, Piri-Reis and many other fantastic and unreal objects, but there are also areas unknown to the European scientist. Among them - the southern extremities of America and even the unknown southern continent - Antarctica.
Time of geographical discoveries
The history of cartography consists of severalmost important, revolutionary stages. Such events were marked by the Renaissance. It was the appearance of the globe of the German geographer Martin Beheim, which was called "Earth apple", and the output of the first collections of geographical maps, sponsored by Gerhart Mercator and Abraham Ortelius. These atlases had all the signs that determined the correct approach to the development and production of maps. Accessible geographical maps made the success of printing.
These events were both a consequence and a causegeographical discoveries that did not leave dark spots on the planet. The appearance of accurate maps has served as a success geography, cartography has made possible long ocean voyages and transcontinental land crossings. Expeditions of Columbus and Magellan, the voyages of Vasco da Gama became possible thanks to the invention of means of navigating the Sun and stars and the wide dissemination of accurate and relatively complete images of the studied sections of the earth's surface.
Cartography in Russia
The importance of information about where the borders pass,the state, the location of large natural objects, the deposits of natural resources, have been recognized in Russia since the time of princely feuds. Geography, topography, cartography fell into the sphere of special state interests during the formation of the centralized power of Moscow. The result of this attention was the "Great Drawing". This was the plan of the Russian territories, executed on a sheet 2,5х2,5 m, created according to one version according to the order of Ivan the Terrible.
Это первое известное произведение российских cartographers came only in the form of a detailed description - "The Book of the Great Drawing", which showed great informative and careful execution of the map.
State approach
Since the time of Peter I in Russiastate system of geodesy and cartography. The compilation and printing of maps were given to the Academy of Sciences. As a result, a lot of work was done on the state surveying of the Russian territory, several versions of detailed atlases were issued.
Among the specialists and amateurs, the Atlas of the central Russian provinces, compiled and published under the supervision of A. I. Mende, is very famous.
At the new technical and organizational levelDomestic cartography and geoinformatics were raised during the Soviet period. By 1954, the mapping of the entire territory of the country on a scale of 1: 100,000 was completed. With the active international cooperation established, the Great Soviet Atlas of the World was published - one of the most comprehensive cartographic publications in the world.
Modern technologies
Hand-drawn plans and maps of past centuriesare a matter of admiration for historians, collectors and connoisseurs of graphic art. Modern cartography is a synthesis of advanced scientific achievements and modern technologies. The breakthrough was the active use of remote zoning methods of our planet - first aerial photography, and then - scanning the earth's surface using satellites. These funds made today's maps and plans of various scales unique in their completeness and accuracy.
Компьютерные и электронно-оптические печатные systems have fundamentally changed the process of printing cards. 3D modeling, digital image processing, analysis and management of huge databases are common methods of work of a modern cartographer. At the same time, the relevance of paper carriers is rapidly decreasing. The main focus of today's cartography and geo-informatics made visualization of information about the geosphere for electronic media, for viewing on various gadgets.
What cartography includes:
- Cartography - a common doctrine of geographical maps.
- History of cartography - the development of methods for drawing up, manufacturing and use of maps.
- Design and mapping.
- Cartographic semiotics - the system of conventional signs and their use in maps.
- Cartographic design.
- Publication and publication of maps.
- Use of cartographic materials.
- Development of sources of cartographic information.
- Toponymy - the science of geographical names.
Industry cartography
Modern cartographic products cancontain information relating to many areas of scientific, social and cultural activities of people. Among them are general geographic - the location of objects of natural and artificial origin, geological, soil, ethnographic. The new directions include geo-ecology, geopolitics, electoral.
There are several directions of practicaluse of similar products that have specific requirements for the preparation and design. Maps and atlases are actively used in the educational process of different levels of education, in scientific work, they are necessary in maritime and air navigation, maps are an important part of tourist guides. Traditionally, demand for military and engineering construction maps and topographic plans.
IT technologies
Computer technology in cartography produceda real revolution, giving rise to one of its most sought-after trends. The interaction of computer modeling and geoinformatics has given rise to geoinformation mapping. The most obvious and distinct result of it was internet mapping, which allows you to use the necessary and relevant information about the surrounding geosphere, a huge number of people.
The main advantage of online cartographyis the relevance of information, its highly informative and visual. The ability to update the map online, various options for displaying it - planar and three-dimensional, day and night, the addition of maps with panoramic photos and video images - all this means unattainable for cartographers of the past.
On land and in the ocean, on Earth and in space
Without maps it is impossible to study the world. They carry information gathered by experts from different branches of science, which helps in its analysis, processing, and the emergence of new theories and hypotheses.
For example, geomorphology - the science of patternsformation of the terrestrial relief - can not do without accurate topographic maps of the land and sea bottom. It is impossible to study the distribution and causes of epidemics without detailed natural and socio-economic maps.
Even distant planets become an object formodern cartography. Comparative planetology establishes the laws of the formation of celestial bodies by analyzing the maps of the Earth and images taken by spacecraft.
Traditions and perspectives
Sometimes there are judgments about impending death.traditional cartography. Allegedly, the development of information technology will lead to the uselessness of maps and plans in the form of globes and paper atlases. Finding maximum information about any point on our planet or in the foreseeable outer space is becoming easier. But this speaks only of the method of publishing cartographic information.
Cartography is a long story and bigtraditions. Let the quality of printing and the merits of graphic design of maps now concern more collectors - modern information and navigation systems are built on principles developed by many generations of cartographers.
The constant change in the physical, social and political image of the Earth and its environment makes cartography a branch of science and technology, the need for which will never disappear.
